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Air Quality Compliance in 2024

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We hope that you are well and that your new year is off to a great start. There is important news pertaining to air quality compliance, and this article will bring you up to speed!

1. As of Monday the 05^th of February 2024, the SAAELIP portal, utilised for NAEIS reporting, will be inaccessible until further notice while a new system is developed. After the 05^th of February, NAEIS reporting will have to be performed manually via facility-specific reporting templates. Facilities that submit their NAEIS reports on SAAELIP before the 05^th of February will not be required to do additional manual reporting.

So, to avoid the challenges of this transition, we advise submitting your NAEIS reports before the 05^th of February. Yellow Tree has conducted NAEIS submissions on behalf of ≈ 60 facilities each year since the inception of the system in 2016. Please do contact us asap should you require assistance with expedited reporting on the NAEIS system before the 05^th of February. Alternatively, we can help you with manual reporting after the 05^th of February.

2. Concurrently, the Atmospheric Emission Licensing (AEL) module of SAAELIP, referred to as SNAEL, will also be offline from 05^th February 2024. A manual licensing process has been established for new applications, renewals, and variations. Should you require support with manual licensing, our team at Yellow Tree is ready to assist.

3. Furthermore, SAGERS remains unavailable for GHG reporting under the National Greenhouse Gas Emission Reporting Regulations (NGERs) for the 2024 and 2025 reporting cycles. Consequently, GHG reporting will also transition to manual methods during this period. Yellow Tree conducted manual GHG reporting before SAGERS was developed in 2020, and is well equipped to do so again in 2024 and 2025.

4. The Taxation Laws Amendment Act 2023 was published on the 22^nd of December 2023. This law amends the Carbon Tax Act and extends the use of the  voluntary carbon budget allowance until the 31^st of December 2024. This allowance can be claimed on carbon tax payments made in July 2024 and July 2025.

Companies that burn fossil fuels in stationary combustion installations like boilers, ovens, and furnaces can potentially save hundreds of thousands of Rands by claiming this additional allowance. If you do not have a voluntary carbon budget in place, please get in touch with us for assistance in compiling and registering a carbon budget with the relevant authorities. We have secured voluntary carbon budgets on behalf of several companies, and these companies have successfully claimed the additional carbon budget allowance.

5. Interestingly, SARS has been enforcing severe penalties, for the late filing and payment of carbon tax, as far back as 2019. Late filing is penalised by 25% of the tax liability, and late payment is penalised by a further 25%. Interest is also levied on the amounts owing. Given the severity of these penalties, it is critical that carbon tax be filed and paid before the due date of the penultimate working day of July each year. Please contact us to calculate, or review, your carbon tax liability so as to avoid penalties, and to ensure that you are obtaining full advantage of the available allowances. We do not want you to overpay!

6. In response to growing pressure for South African companies to “decarbonise” we are able to help by developing tailored decarbonisation strategies for businesses seeking to reduce GHG emissions across their operations and supply chains. As chemical engineers who deeply understand the South African fuel mix, we would love to compile a decarbonisation strategy for your business.

7. Lastly, in a fascinating High Court judgment that was handed down in 2023, a well-known South African company was fined R8 million for transgressing the Minimum Emission Standards (MES) that are prescribed in G.N. 893 of 2013. This landmark case highlights the intensified enforcement of air pollution regulations in South Africa and reinforces the “polluter pays” principle that is embodied in South Africa’s suite of environmental laws.

We feel that this case highlights the need for accurate stack sampling, so that you always know where you stand, and can defend your emissions results. We have never provided the cheapest stack sampling service, but have instead always focused on the highest accuracy by hiring exclusively chemical engineers as field scientists and report writers, and by purchasing state of the art measurement equipment.

We trust that this gives you a helpful overview of the changing space that is air quality in South Africa. We are here to help, so please do contact us.

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10 Ways to Reduce Carbon Tax

How many did you use this year?

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As the 2022 carbon tax year draws to a close with payments due by no later than the 28^th of July 2023 (i.e. Friday next week!), we reflect on ways in which we have helped our clients to reduce their carbon tax this year. These methods of reduction are worth your focus in the years ahead. We thought to share them with you because enormous increases in the cost of carbon tax are imminent, as shown by the graphs in this fascinating one-page article.

Described beneath are 10 ways to reduce your carbon tax, starting with the most obvious, and culminating with some interesting and innovative options. We would love to help you implement these measures – so please do connect with us!

1. The first is the most obvious: be meticulous with your record keeping during the year. Keep clear records of all fossil fuels that were combusted, and records of which were combusted in stationary applications vs mobile applications (this is important). Also, demand fuel specification records from your suppliers frequently through the year (ideally monthly).

2. The second is equally as simple: ensure that you have a trusted partner to perform your carbon tax calculations. If you perform them yourself, have a trusted partner review them for accuracy and have them assess whether you have capitalized on all the available carbon tax allowances.

3. If your business is classified under an SIC code as trade exposed, don’t merely read the trade exposure allowance from the table (Annexure A of GN 43451, 19^th June 2020), but perform a calculation using the formula that is provided. This formula makes use of your total imports and exports as a % of sales. If this method determines a higher allowance than that in the table, you may use the higher value! If your SIC code permits a 10% allowance, which is the highest available, then you don’t need to bother with this point 3.

4. Many businesses have not yet made use of the offset allowance through the purchase of carbon credits. Although the offset allowance is 10%, the price of carbon credits is often 90% of the prevailing tax rate, resulting in a mere 1% saving in carbon tax. Nonetheless, for large carbon tax bills, this may be helpful. And of course, one shouldn’t rule out the option of being resourceful and purchasing carbon credits at a lower price. But remember that only credits that are created under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), or Gold Standard, may be retired in order to be used as offsets to reduce carbon tax. Furthermore, considering the steep increases in the price of carbon tax in the years ahead, purchasing carbon credits now for the 2023 – 2025 tax years could unlock a good return. Just remember to not purchase more credits than you think you will need for the period of 2023 – 2025. Phase 1 of carbon tax ends in December 2025 and the legislation may change after that, possibly rendering a particular type of carbon credit that you purchased, redundant.

5. You may not have used the performance allowance to date (GN 43452), which could provide you with a 5% tax deduction. We can help you calculate the performance allowance by evaluating your scope 1 and scope 2 emissions. Remember that the rest of the carbon tax formulae only calculate the stationary component of your scope 1 emissions. However, the performance allowance evaluates your full scope 1 emissions (stationary and mobile) and your scope 2 emissions (i.e. electricity usage). Strangely, not all emissions intensity benchmarks include both scope 1 and scope 2 emissions (so chat to us for clarity based on your industry). Scope 2 emissions are attributable to electricity use and to calculate these you will need to convert your annual electricity usage (in MWh) to a CO₂e (Carbon Dioxide Equivalent) value, and sum these emissions with your scope 1 emissions. Having obtained your total scope 1 and 2 emissions, you divide these by your annual production in tonnes and compare your emissions intensity to the emissions intensity benchmark if one exists for your industry. If you beat the emissions intensity benchmark, you can claim the performance allowance.

6. We successfully submitted several carbon budgets to the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE), and this saved some of our clients several hundred thousand Rand each in carbon tax this year. Our clients often ask whether a voluntary carbon budget binds the company to the budgeted value. The answer from the DFFE is an emphatic “No!”. The voluntary carbon budget system exists simply to get industry reporting on the system ahead of mandatory carbon budgeting. Mandatory carbon budgeting will only become effective once the Climate Change Bill has been promulgated. We chatted to those drafting the bill recently, and it is evident that the bill may still be some time off. Although a long shot, voluntary carbon budgets may therefore still be an effective tool for carbon tax reduction, so if you are interested, please chat to us and we can engage with the DFFE on your behalf.

7. This year was the first year that Tier 3 factors were required to be used instead of tier 1 factors. What are tier 1, 2 and 3 factors? These are the factors that are used to convert your fuel use (in tonnes, cubic meters, litres, GJ, or MWh) to tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e) which are emitted to the atmosphere. Tier 1 factors are global factors that were developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC). Tier 2 factors are country specific factors for South Africa and can be found in the 2022 Methodological Guidelines for Quantification of Greenhouse Gas Emissions which can be downloaded at the bottom of this article. Tier 3 factors are site specific and are calculated based on the fuel specification sheets of the diesel, paraffin, coal, HFO, LPG etc that is burnt in your boilers, incinerators, driers, mixers, heaters, furnaces and other appliances. Interestingly, tier 3 factors produce quite different results from tier 1 factors, particularly for South African coal. Even more interestingly, for some IPPC codes (such as 1A2e – food, beverage and tobacco industry) companies were presented with the option of choosing either tier 1, 2 or 3. Choosing the correct tier saved one of our clients ≈ R400 000 in carbon tax this year.

8. Oxidation factors: This is where it begins to get interesting. As a team of chemical engineers who perform air dispersion modelling and Greenhouse Gas (GHGs) calculations, we are always intrigued by the link between engineering and its expression in law. This year the DFFE advised that it should be assumed that all the carbon that is present in the fuel is combusted and releases CO₂, CH₄ (methane) and N₂O (nitrous oxide) – the Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). This is a fair assumption for clean burning fuels such as gas and the cleaner liquid fuels (paraffin, kerosene, LO10, and to an extent, diesel). It is also fair to assume that almost all of the carbon in dirty liquid fuels such as heavy furnace oil (aka heavy fuel oil, or HFO) is combusted, although some carbon will be emitted as unburned cenospheres of fuel known as particulate matter (PM).

But as for coal, this is a poor assumption. Because of boundary layer theory not all of the carbon that is in coal combusts. As shown in the image beneath, black deposits of carbon remain in the ash after the combustion of coal:

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For this reason, it may be possible for Yellow Tree to measure the carbon that remains in the ash at your facilities and to calculate an oxidation factor. After motivation to the DFFE, it may be possible to apply this factor, resulting in a more accurate calculation of your CO₂e and lower carbon tax. We would love to help you with this next year so please do get in contact.

9. The ninth option is an exciting one – a fuel switch. For our nation and for our world to move forward, it is important to remember that carbon tax is not merely another tax. By viewing it as such, one would miss the opportunity to see the heart of the policy makers and the need of our planet. Carbon tax was promulgated to disincentivise the use of carbon heavy fuels (like coal). A switch to lower carbon fuels is intended to reduce your tax. Often lower carbon fuels are more expensive, but not always. Wood, for example, may be a cost-effective option if there is a supply near your facility. While converting to wood-firing may be capitally intensive, we have a list of suppliers that sell such equipment, have financing options and which supply wood.

Even fossil fuels like natural gas and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) are cleaner than coal. The reason is simple. Natural gas consists mainly of methane (CH₄). Therefore, for every molecule of carbon that burns, four molecules of hydrogen also burn to form water which is carbon neutral. One must remember that methane has the highest ratio of hydrogen to carbon atoms and is therefore the cleanest fossil fuel.

10. We have saved the best for last! This option is a win-win-win. It is a win for you as a client, it is a win for the policy makers whose desire is to decarbonize the economy, and it is a win for the planet. This option is also inexpensive. It is the application of bespoke engineering skills to your energy plant to optimise its efficiency and in so doing to reduce your fuel usage and extend the life of your plant. You win because you pay less carbon tax and greatly reduce your fuel bill. We perform isokinetic stack sampling and flue gas analysis on hundreds of combustion stacks every year, and it is very seldom that we see combustion plant in South Africa operating anywhere near its optimum. There exists a large gap. There are many companies that can assist you either by auditing your plant, or by upgrading your combustion control systems, or even by operating the energy plant on your behalf. We keep these suppliers at arms length, but do keep a list that we will gladly share with you. It is our hope to share this list as a future article on our website.

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Those are 10 great ways to reduce carbon tax in 2023. If you would like us to review your carbon tax calculations before you release payment of your 2022 carbon tax next week, it is not too late. Please connect with Cait, Sasha or Sean. We would love to help you.

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Carbon Tax set to Increase by 285%

What you need to know

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On the 05th of January 2023, the Ministry of Finance announced South Africa’s amended carbon tax rates spanning 2023 to 2030. Prior to this, the carbon tax rate was set to only increase by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) plus 2 % until the end of 2022, and by CPI thereafter.

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In addition to significant increases in the rate of tax, government has indicated that the tax allowances, which have provided respite in the first phase of carbon tax, may fall away when Phase 1 ends on the 31st of December 2025. At this time, it is not known whether these allowances will cease to apply immediately, or whether they will be phased out gradually.

These allowances have enabled taxpayers to reduce their carbon tax payments by up to a maximum of 95 %. Most manufacturing businesses that burn fossil fuels have not been able to claim the maximum of 95 %, but will have enjoyed a 60 % basic tax free allowance, along with a 10 % trade exposure allowance. Because of these allowances, the effective rate of tax from 2019 to 2025 has been significantly lower than the rates shown in the table above. Thus, the effective increase in the rate of tax after 2025 will actually be much higher than indicated above if these allowances do fall away. This is shown in the graph below.

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In light of these profound increases, it is critical that taxpayers reduce their carbon tax liability.

Do you calculate your own carbon tax?

Are you sure that you are optimising the available allowances?

Would you like our team of experts to review your, or your consultants’, calculations to give you peace of mind?

Yellow Tree has saved its clients hundreds of thousands of Rands by performing or reviewing their carbon tax calculations. We would love to give you the same peace of mind. So please contact us!

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NEMLA

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How will NEMLA affect your operation?

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Following much debate since its introduction to Parliament in 2017, the National Environmental Management Laws Amendment (NEMLA) Act was finally published on the 24^th of June, 2022. Although it has been published, NEMLA will only come into effect on a date to be chosen by the President. At this stage, there is no indication of when that date might be.

NEMLA is a 100-page document that contains numerous amendments to the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), as well as to the specific acts that govern air quality, protected areas, biodiversity, coastal management and waste. Yellow Tree has carefully read NEMLA and has attended two government meetings in which the implications of NEMLA for air quality listed activities have been discussed. In the realm of air quality, the amendments that are most likely to affect industry are discussed in the table below.  A list of other changes that are not covered in this article has been compiled by Yellow Tree and is available on request.

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Act, Section, Context	Current Legislation	Future: NEMLA
Act: NEMA Section: 24G Context: Section 24 of NEMA requires that people who wish to conduct a “listed activity” first obtain environmental authorisation (EA) before they commence the activity. Listed activities span a wide range of activities from excavating sand to operating nuclear power plants. To obtain an EA, one must go through an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process.	Section 24G(1) allows the competent authority to order a number of actions from the applicant. One of these actions is that the competent authority may direct the applicant to immediately cease the activity. But the authority does not have to take this action.	Under NEMLA, the competent authority must direct the applicant to immediately cease the activity until an EA has been granted. The competent authority must also direct the applicant to conduct a number of other actions. The mandatory cessation of the listed activity until EA has been granted is particularly significant because EIA processes can take years to complete. This will have vast financial consequences on activities that commence without first obtaining an EA.
Section 24G of NEMA permits a retrospective EA to be obtained if a listed activity has already commenced without first obtaining an EA.	Section 24G(4) states that a person who applies for a retrospective EA must pay an administrative fine not exceeding R 5 million before the application is considered.	On the commencement of NEMLA, the maximum fine will be increased to R 10 million.
Act: NEMAQA Section: 22A Context: Similar to Section 24 of NEMA, Section 22 of NEMAQA requires people who wish to conduct an air quality “listed activity” to obtain an Atmospheric Emissions License (AEL) to lawfully operate the activity. Air quality listed activities span a wide range of industries from small precious metal production facilities to large coal-fired power stations.	The licensing authority who receives an application for a retrospective AEL in terms of section 22A may order a number of actions from the applicant. One of these actions is that the licensing authority may direct the applicant to immediately cease the activity until the AEL has been issued. But the authority does not have to take this action.	On commencement of NEMLA, the licensing authority must direct the applicant to immediately cease the activity until the AEL is issued. The licensing authority must also direct the applicant to conduct a number of other actions. Again, the mandatory cessation of the listed activity until an AEL is issued is significant because AEL applications take months to complete. This will have dire financial consequences on activities that have operated without an AEL and are forced to shut down.
Section 22A of NEMAQA permits a retrospective AEL to be obtained if a listed activity has unlawfully commenced before first obtaining an AEL, or if an AEL expired before application for renewal was made.	Section 22A(7) states that a person who applies for a retrospective AEL must pay an administrative fine not exceeding R 5 million before the application is considered.	On commencement of NEMLA, the maximum fine will be increased to R 10 million.
Act: NEMAQA Section: 47A	Currently, NEMAQA does not provide for the revocation or suspension of an AEL.	On commencement of NEMLA, licensing authorities may revoke or suspend AELs if the licence holder has contravened a provision of NEMAQA or a condition of the AEL, and that contravention means that there is, or may be, a “significant detrimental effect” on the environment and human health.

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It must be remembered that all administrative actions that are taken by government officials are subject to the Promotion of Administrative Justice Act (PAJA). The application of PAJA to NEMLA has been stressed by the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE), particularly with respect to the closure of facilities and with respect to the suspension and revocation of AELs. PAJA seeks to ensure that administrators follow fair procedures when making decisions by:

1. Notifying those who may be affected before the decision is made,
2. Allowing those who may be affected enough time to reply either for or against the decision,
3. Notifying those that are affected about the decision once it has been made,
4. Notifying those that are affected by the decision of their rights to review or appeal,
5. Notifying those that are affected that they can request reasons for the decision.

The new laws regarding the mandatory ceasing of unlawful activities, and the power to revoke and suspend AELs, ensure that compliance with environmental laws is taken seriously. However, these laws could be abused by licensing authorities – especially considering that shutting down an activity could result in severe loss for the company. As such, the DFFE is in the process of drafting strict protocols for licensing authorities regarding how they exercise these new powers, and these protocols will consider the stringent provisions of PAJA.

Aside from NEMLA, it was noted at the 2022 Air Quality Management Governance Lekgotla (4th of October 2022) that a cabinet directive was recently issued to air quality licensing authorities. The directive stated that, in the interest of service delivery and good governance, any local municipality that is not able to process AEL applications in the requisite 60 days must relinquish their licensing powers to the provincial government. This directive was implemented to protect industry.

It is important to remember that AEL licensing fees are regulated and are subject to a specific fee schedule. The fee structure (from G.N. 250 of 2016) is shown below:

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The processing fees are as follows:

Application for new atmospheric emission licence	Application for atmospheric emission licence review	Application for atmospheric emission licence renewal	Application for atmospheric emission licence transfer
R10 000 per listed activity	R10 000 per listed activity under review	R5 000 per listed activity	R2 000

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No facility should pay more than these fees.

The most crucial learnings from this article are that:

1. NEMLA obligates authorities to shut down your site if you unlawfully commence an EIA listed activity. Before you make any changes to your site, ensure that you do not require environmental authorisation (EA) to do so.
2. NEMLA obligates authorities to shut down your site if you operate without an AEL. Ensure that you renew your AEL timeously, and that you do not commence any new air quality listed activities without first obtaining an AEL.
3. NEMLA gives your licensing authority the power to revoke or suspend your AEL if you do not comply with certain conditions that are contained in the AEL. Ensure that you know what each and every condition in your AEL requires of you. Ensure that you meet the emissions limits in your AEL. Yellow Tree can advise you on the right abatement equipment to meet these limits.
4. While NEMLA has been gazetted, it is not yet in operation and will only come into operation on a date that is yet to be set by the president.

Our passionate team at Yellow Tree is knowledgeable and is here to support you. Please contact us if your emissions are above the limits and you would like us to help you.

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Has Subcategory 9.5 of the Listed Activities Really Been Set Aside?

(Sawmilling South Africa vs Department of Environmental Affairs, in the High Court)

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The picture above of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia is both evocative and calming, as the smoky blue haze covers the mountains like blankets. But where does this haze come from? What purpose does it serve? And what does all this have to do with subcategory 9.5 of South Africa’s Air Quality Listed Activities?

The Blue Ridge mountains are named for their beautiful blue haze, resulting from the way that tiny aerosols diffract short wavelength sunlight. These aerosols are released by the forests and are comprised of naturally-occurring organic chemicals such as monoterpenes, like α- and β- pinene, which give pine wood its characteristic smell. Plants emit terpenes to protect their leaves from heat. Terpenes are also the primary constituents of essential oils, like the lavender and eucalyptus oils that one puts in one’s bath.

When wood is dried in indirectly-fired kilns, the only emissions are these naturally-occurring terpenes and the moisture that is driven off the wood as it is dried. Wood drying kilns in South Africa are heated with steam and are called “indirectly-fired” because the heat is not generated in the kiln itself but rather in a boiler. The energy is transferred from the boiler to the kiln using steam as the medium. This is depicted in the diagram beneath. The boiler is shown in the middle, the kiln is shown on the left, and the treatment of the boiler’s flue gases are shown on the right:

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/kiln-image.png" alt="sean charteris md" title_text="kiln image" align="center" _builder_version="4.18.0" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.18.0" _module_preset="default" text_font="Century Gothic||||||||" text_font_size="1.2em" text_line_height="1em" text_orientation="center" global_colors_info="{}"]

Figure 1: Indirectly-Fired Kiln, Boiler and Abatement Equipment

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Inside the kiln, the steam flows through a heat exchanger, imparting its heat to the internal air, which is circulated by fans to dry the wood. To control the relative humidity, a small amount of live steam may be injected into the kiln.

Indirectly-fired kilns that use steam, like those found in South Africa, are widely used around the globe. However, in countries where gaseous fuels (such as LPG, LNG, and CNG) are affordable, directly-fired kilns are sometimes used. They are uncommon in South Africa. Direct drying is used in applications where discolouration of the wood due to the combustion flue gases is inconsequential. When direct firing, the combustion flue gases are blended with cool air to obtain the required temperature for optimal wood drying. A directly-fired kiln is shown in the diagram beneath:

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/directly-fired-kiln.png" alt="sean charteris md" title_text="directly fired kiln" align="center" _builder_version="4.18.0" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.18.0" _module_preset="default" text_font="Century Gothic||||||||" text_font_size="1.2em" text_line_height="1em" text_orientation="center" global_colors_info="{}"]

Figure 2: Directly-Fired Kiln

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When a kiln is fired directly, the flue gases must be treated by appropriate air pollution abatement equipment, if required. If the direct firing creates particulate matter, then a multi-cyclone, bag filter or electrostatic precipitator may be necessary. This is why, in the diagram above, abatement equipment is shown as attached to the kiln.

The diagram above is from the South African Listed Activities companion notes. These companion notes are beneficial in understanding the intention of the Listed Activities legislation. This diagram shows that the legislation intended to regulate emissions from directly-fired kilns and not indirectly-fired kilns. Because indirectly-fired kilns do not produce combustion emissions [such as particulate matter (PM), sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and the oxides of nitrogen (NO_x)], there is no need to regulate these kilns. Their only emissions are naturally-occurring terpenes and water vapour.

For this reason, Sawmilling SA brought a case against the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), which is now known as the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE), seeking an order that the inclusion of indirectly-fired kilns in subcategory 9.5 be set aside insofar as it requires:

“A sawmill that dries wood in an indirectly-fired kiln with an external source of heat in the form of a boiler with a design capacity ≤ 50 MW to obtain an Atmospheric Emissions License (AEL).”

It is critically important to note that SA Sawmilling did not ask for the whole of subcategory 9.5 to be set aside for all activities that subcategory 9.5 regulates. SA Sawmilling asked only that it be set aside for sawmills that operate indirectly-fired kilns using boilers with a rating of 50 MW or less of Net Heat Input (NHI). In February 2021, the Gauteng High Court found in favour of SA Sawmilling and against the DEA:

“The Minister’s decision to publish the listed activity in subcategory 9.5 of the 2018 regulations is reviewed and set aside.”

While the focus of the judgment was on indirectly-fired kilns, strangely, the order does imply that the whole of subcategory 9.5 has been set aside. We question whether this was an error. Interestingly, the DFFE have chosen to interpret the judgement in light of the original application, stating that it pertains only to indirectly-fired kilns, and we agree. The DFFE make this clear in a directive regarding the licensing of sawmills (see text that is highlighted in yellow):

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Let’s delve into the history behind this story.

In 2004 the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (NEM:AQA) was promulgated. Section 21(1) of NEM:AQA stated that the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (as the department was known at that time) must publish a list of activities that significantly affect the environment. In 2010 the Minister published the first list of Listed Activities and in 2013, this list was revised and republished in GN 893. Several amendments have subsequently been made to the 2013 list. Most notable for the timber industry are the amendments that were made in October 2018. Before October 2018, subcategory 9.5 in the Listed Activities read as follows:

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As highlighted in yellow above, sawmills triggered subcategory 9.5 in two ways: they were burning wood in their boilers and drying wood by an external heat source.

This was confusing because boiler emissions were subsequently also regulated under the controlled emitters legislation, GN 831 of 2013. This meant that some boilers were regulated under two pieces of legislation and therefore had two sets of emissions limits: those imposed by subcategory 9.5 and those imposed by the Controlled Emitters legislation (GN 831). However, on the 31st of October 2018, subcategory 9.5 was amended to eliminate the confusion, as shown below. Underlined text indicates text that was added to the old legislation:

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/wood-drying.png" alt="sean charteris md" title_text="wood drying" align="center" _builder_version="4.18.0" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.18.0" text_font="Century Gothic|500|||||||" text_font_size="1.3em" text_line_height="1.6em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" custom_margin="||1.5%||false|false" custom_padding="||||false|false" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" saved_tabs="all" global_colors_info="{}"]The reference to “wood burning” was removed from the description of subcategory 9.5, eliminating the confusion for facilities not in the timber industry that were burning wood. For example, well known FMCG brand, Unilever, burns wood or biomass in many of its boilers globally as a greener fuel choice. The intention of subcategory 9.5 was never to regulate the FMCG industry.

Furthermore, as you will see in the excerpts above, a “special arrangement” was introduced that states that external sources of heat (i.e. boilers) are no longer required to comply with the subcategory 9.5 emissions limits and are instead required to comply with the emissions limits for Controlled Emitters (if the boiler has an NHI of 10 – 50 MW). These were two welcome changes to the legislation.

However, one problem was exacerbated by the 2018 legislation. The term “by an external source of heat” was removed, meaning that the term ”drying of wood” was more widely applicable than before. Peculiarly, the Minister had notified industry on the 25th of May 2018 in GN R516 that he intended to do the very opposite of this. The minister had proposed the new wording to read:

“Description: the drying of wood using direct-fired kilns, and the manufacture of laminated and compressed wood products.”

But this proposed wording was not enacted into legislation. If it had been passed, it would have deregulated all indirectly-fired kilns as they emit only terpenes and water vapour. SA Sawmilling would have been satisfied with this wording and would not have needed to take the DEA to court. The court upheld the view that indirectly-fired kilns do not create environmental damage and handed down a judgment ordering that:

“The Minister’s decision to publish the listed activity in subcategory 9.5 of the 2018 regulations is reviewed and set aside.”

The DFFE is appealing this judgment at the Supreme Court.

While the focus of the judgment was on indirectly-fired kilns, the order does implicate that the whole of subcategory 9.5 has been set aside. However, the DFFE clarified in a letter (which can be downloaded beneath) that they believe that the judgement applies only to:

“A sawmill that dries wood in an indirectly-fired kiln with an external source of heat in the form of a boiler with a design capacity ≤ 50 MW to obtain an Atmospheric Emissions License (AEL).”

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Yellow Tree’s Opinion:

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1. It is Yellow Tree’s professional opinion, based on research, that indirectly-fired kilns:

a) produce no combustion-related pollutants (PM, SO₂ or NO_x),

b) produce mostly water vapour (which is not harmful) and terpenes (which are naturally occurring),

c) cause no environmental harm.

2. Therefore, we believe that there is no benefit to be derived from licensing indirectly-fired kilns using Atmospheric Emissions Licences (AELs).

3. To confirm the facts above, Yellow Tree is prepared to sample the vent of an indirectly-fired kiln as an independent third party, should the DFFE, SA Sawmilling, or the Supreme Court of Appeals find this beneficial. Yellow Tree will gladly do so free of charge to serve the environment.

4. Both the DFFE who promulgate the environmental legislation, and the municipal and provincial authorities that implement it, have an enormous task ahead of them in their admirable goal of improving air quality in South Africa. We share this goal at Yellow Tree as the environment is dear to our hearts. By deregulating indirectly-fired kilns that produce no pollution, the DFFE and local authorities are freed up to focus on regulating South Africa’s main polluters such as coal-fired electricity generation, small boiler operation (firing coal and heavy furnace oil [HFO]), cement production, the petroleum industry, waste incinerators, and the pulp and paper industry, to name but a few. Therefore, this judgement by the High Court unlocks great benefit for Air Quality in South Africa by permitting the DFFE and local authorities to focus their scarce resources on the most significant environmental victories.

5. The High Court should not have set aside the whole of subcategory 9.5. As the DFFE rightly stated, subcategory 9.5 should only have been set aside insofar as it:

a) pertains to a sawmill…

b) that dries wood in an indirectly-fired kiln…

c) with an external source of heat in the form of a boiler…

d) with a design capacity ≤ 50 MW…

e) requiring an Atmospheric Emissions License (AEL).

6. Sawmills will still be regulated under the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) and may trigger Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). Therefore, their environmental impact will still be managed, which may allay concerns of the DFFE that sawmills will go unregulated. Only the air quality impact pertaining to kilns ought to be deregulated.

7. Should the DFFE feel that sawdust from sawmills poses a fugitive emissions problem, and would like sawmills to be licensed with Atmospheric Emissions Licenses (AELs), then the Listed Activities legislation should be adjusted to deal specifically with fugitive sawdust. The sawmilling component of an operation is entirely separate from the drying of wood in kilns and, as such, should be dealt with separately and appropriately.

8. Yellow Tree recommends that other activities that have historically been regulated under subcategory 9.5 (such as the manufacture of laminated and compressed wood products) continue with their duty of stack sampling in good faith; and that local and provincial municipalities continue to license these activities, as encouraged by the DFFE. It was not the intention of the High Court to set aside subcategory 9.5 in its entirety because this was not the application that SA Sawmilling sought. Interestingly, two municipalities with which Yellow Tree engages, are not processing any subcategory 9.5 AEL applications, even if the facility does not have indirectly-fired kilns (e.g. particleboard and MDF production facilities). We would encourage all municipalities to proceed as per the DFFE’s written directive (attached beneath) and to license subcategory 9.5 listed activities except those with indirectly-fired kilns.

9. The DFFE may do well to consider regulating boilers that are smaller than 10 MW NHI. The most common size of boilers in South Africa is 7.3 MW NHI. These boilers are known in industry as “10 t/hr boilers” (from and at 100ºC) and are often installed in groups of two to five. 10 t/hr boilers are usually chosen over larger boilers, because having several present at a factory introduces operational redundancy. Furthermore, 10 t/hr boilers represent a cost-effective method of side-stepping the controlled emitters legislation, therefore avoiding the costly installation of suitable abatement equipment (e.g. bag filters). Yellow Tree recommends that the DFFE engage with South Africa’s only boiler fabricator, John Thompson, to determine the size of boiler most commonly sold over the past 40 years (which is most likely the 10 t/hr boiler) and to ensure that these boilers are regulated. Cumulatively these boilers comprise a significant source of absolute emissions, and many emit excessively high concentrations of PM.

10. Yellow Tree recommends that subcategory 9.5 of the legislation be reworded as the DFFE originally suggested: the drying of wood using direct-fired kilns, and the manufacture of laminated and compressed wood products. This is in accordance with the original intention of the legislation, as noted in the companion notes of 2010.

11. The court did a commendable job obtaining the opinion of Dr Ströhr, who indicated that indirectly-fired kilns are not a source of air pollution. Additionally, the High Court’s judgement has freed up the DFFE and South African Air Quality Officers to focus on regulating sources of pollution that have an immense detrimental impact on the environment by avoiding focusing on those that do not.

12. We believe that all stakeholders will benefit from engaging in good faith while remaining unified in improving air quality and serving the environment.

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Amendment: As per the following attachment, the high court have indeed confimed that Subcategory 9.5 is only set aside in so far as it:

a) pertains to a sawmill…

b) that dries wood in an indirectly-fired kiln…

c) with an external source of heat in the form of a boiler…

d) with a design capacity ≤ 50 MW…

e) requiring an Atmospheric Emissions License (AEL).

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Regulated Boiler Sizes

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We are often asked by our clients who operate boilers how the air quality legislation impacts them and what their reporting requirements are. We made a seven-minute video that answers these questions. At the end of the video, you will know if your boilers are regulated and what reporting you are required to do.

 

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If you have any questions related to this, or anything else, then please reach out to us; we’d love to help you.

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Multi-Cyclones (Grit Collectors)

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What do multi-cyclones do?

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Multi-cyclones are used to separate solid particles, known as particulate matter, from the gases in which they are entrained. For example multi-cyclones can be used downstream of a combustion process to separate flyash from flue gas; or downsteam of a rotary or fluidised bed drier to separate sand from hot air.

Particulate matter from combustion is commonly called smoke. The greater the concentration of particles, the denser the smoke. Particles that are white or light grey in colour and cause white/grey smoke are typically comprised of ash whereas particles that contain unburned carbon are black and appear as black smoke:

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The same stack emitting black smoke (unburned carbon) and white smoke (ash) in the Western Cape, South Africa.

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Why are multi-cyclones necessary?

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Because particulate matter is detrimental to human health, multi-cyclones are necessary to remove entrained particles from a gas stream before the stream is discharged to the environment through a chimney stack.

Particles that are smaller than 10 µm in size and especially particles that are smaller than 2.5 µm in size (called PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 respectively) are the most harmful to human health. PM₁₀ is sufficiently small to become embedded deep in the respiratory system, and PM_2.5 can enter directly into the blood stream by passing through the respiratory system.

From an environmental perspective, particles that are entrained in the atmosphere contribute to smog. Smaller particles remain entrained in the atmosphere for many months. This is why it is necessary to remove these particles from the gas stream before the stream is discharged into the environment.

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How does a cyclone work?

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A gas stream that contains particulate matter enters a cyclone tangentially, which causes the gas to spin downwards flinging the particles to the side of the cyclone and releasing them at the bottom or apex of the cyclone when the gas reverses its direction. The bottom of the cyclone is sealed which forces the gas to change direction and spiral back up the centre of the cyclone. This is called a vertical reverse-flow cyclone, and is the most common type.

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/P3.jpg" show_bottom_space="off" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" width="50%" module_alignment="center" max_height="444px" custom_margin="0%||||false|false" custom_padding="0%||||false|false" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]

The efficiency of cyclones increases with decreasing cyclone diameter. In order to treat large quantities of gas with a high efficiency it is most effective to group numerous cyclones with small diameters together. This unit is then called a multi-cyclone.

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How does a multi-cyclone work?

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.16″ text_font=”Montserrat||||||||” text_font_size=”1rem” text_line_height=”1.5em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#ffd100″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font=”|||on|||||” header_2_text_align=”left” header_2_text_color=”#3d3d3d” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_2_letter_spacing=”2px” header_2_line_height=”1.6em” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_font_size=”2em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_color_top=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]

A multi-cyclone is comprised of many individual cyclones that each use the principles of centrifugal force and inertia to separate particulate matter from a gas stream. Often the particulate laden gas enters each individual cyclone within a multi-cyclone through inlet guide vanes, instead of the tangential entry shown in the diagram above. The guide vanes cause the gas to spiral downwards to the apex of each cyclone.

As a result of centrifugal force, the particles in the gas move radially towards the outer walls and then slide downward towards the apex where they are collected. Near the apex, the clean gas reverses its downward spiral and moves upwards in a second, smaller spiral before it exits from the top of each cyclone. When the gas changes direction, the inertia of the particles keeps them moving downwards, out of the cyclone and into the collection area. This process is shown in the picture beneath and in the video that follows:

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/P4.jpg" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_video src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=47hgeZJJbww" play_icon_color="#e02b20" thumbnail_overlay_color="rgba(0,0,0,0.6)" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" border_radii="on|2px|2px|2px|2px" border_width_all="2px" border_color_all="#000000" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_video][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" text_font="Century Gothic|500|||||||" text_font_size="1.3em" text_line_height="1.6em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="center" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font_size="2em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_text_color="#ffd100" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="center" width="60%" module_alignment="center" custom_margin="|||20%|false|false" custom_padding="||||false|false" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]Beneath are pictures of a multi-cyclone, its internals, and the spinner vanes that cause a particulate-laden inlet gas to swirl in each cyclone. [/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/1.jpg" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]

Top Left: An External View of a Multi-Cyclone

Top Right: The Individual Cyclones from Inside a Multi-Cyclone

Bottom Left: The Spinner Vanes on Top of the Cyclones

Bottom Right: Close Up of Spinner Vanes

[/et_pb_text][/et_pb_column][/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.16″ width=”100%” max_width=”2022px” module_alignment=”center” custom_padding=”|2%||2%|false|true” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.16″ global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.16″ text_font=”Century Gothic|500|||||||” text_font_size=”1.3em” text_line_height=”1.6em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”center” header_text_color=”#000000″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_3_font=”|||on|||||” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_text_color=”#000000″ header_3_font_size=”2em” header_3_letter_spacing=”2px” header_3_line_height=”1.6em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_width_bottom=”3px” border_color_bottom=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]

What are the problems with multi-cyclones?

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.18.0″ text_font=”Montserrat||||||||” text_font_size=”1rem” text_line_height=”1.5em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#ffd100″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font=”|||on|||||” header_2_text_align=”left” header_2_text_color=”#3d3d3d” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_2_letter_spacing=”2px” header_2_line_height=”1.6em” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_font_size=”2em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_color_top=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]1. Broken Seals

A broken seal is the most common problem on a multi-cyclone. The cyclones are required to be completely sealed at all times. Multi-cyclones often operate under negative pressure as the induced draught fan is located downstream. Therefore, if multi-cyclones are not sealed at the bottom, air will be drawn in. This air will re-entrain the particulate matter that has collected underneath the individual cyclones, and it will prevent incoming flue gas from swirling cyclonically. This problem is shown in the diagram and video beneath:[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/2.jpg" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_video src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0S32_6RsSA" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_video][et_pb_video _builder_version="4.16" border_color_top="#ffd100" global_colors_info="{}" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" header_2_font_size_tablet="2em" header_3_text_align_tablet="justify"][/et_pb_video][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]In the video above, it is plain to see how a double flap valve maintains a seal at all times, while simultaneously permitting particulate matter to be discharged. A rotary valve is an alternative to a double flap valve, and performs the same function.

Double flap valves often become stuck open or eroded by particulate matter, as shown in the picture beneath.

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/P11-final.jpg" _builder_version="4.16" width="60%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]

Double flaps need to be inspected daily by the operator to ensure that they are in good working order and sealing well.

[/et_pb_text][/et_pb_column][/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.16″ width=”100%” max_width=”2022px” module_alignment=”center” custom_padding=”|2%||2%|false|true” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.16″ global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.18.0″ text_font=”Montserrat||||||||” text_font_size=”1rem” text_line_height=”1.5em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#ffd100″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font=”|||on|||||” header_2_text_align=”left” header_2_text_color=”#3d3d3d” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_2_letter_spacing=”2px” header_2_line_height=”1.6em” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_font_size=”2em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_color_top=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]2. Intercell Flows

Blocked vanes prevent the particulate laden gas from entering an individual cyclone and permit that cyclone to become an exit conduit for air from an adjacent cyclone, thereby increasing particulate matter emissions. This concept is known as intercell flow and is illustrated in the figure and video beneath. It is important to clean multi-cyclones often so as to keep the inlet spinner vanes free from blockages therefore preventing intercell flow.[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/3.jpg" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_video src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhoBgygbEIQ" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_video][/et_pb_column][/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version="4.16" width="100%" max_width="2022px" module_alignment="center" custom_padding="|2%||2%|false|true" global_colors_info="{}"][et_pb_column type="4_4" _builder_version="4.16" global_colors_info="{}"][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.18.0" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]3. Eroded Cyclones

Cyclones erode over time due to the constant swirling motion of the abrasive particulate matter against the cyclone metal. Many boiler multi-cyclones in South Africa were installed thirty or forty years ago, and have not been internally inspected since then. For this reason many multi-cyclones have suffered significant erosion and, in some cases, the internal cyclones no longer exist. The images and video beneath show this erosion and serve to explain why many multi-cyclones no longer arrest particulate matter effectively.[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/13.jpg" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_video src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jBgcVMRpPA" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_video][/et_pb_column][/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version="4.16" width="100%" max_width="2022px" module_alignment="center" custom_padding="|2%||2%|false|true" global_colors_info="{}"][et_pb_column type="4_4" _builder_version="4.16" global_colors_info="{}"][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]

4. Cyclones are Filled with Particulate Matter

Multi-cyclones can become completely filled with particulate matter if the operator does not open the discharge flaps frequently every day. To overcome this problem the discharge flaps on modern multi-cyclones are motorised to open and close automatically. However, on older multi-cyclones these valves must be manually opened and closed. If the operator does not open and close them, the whole multi-cyclone will fill with particulate matter as shown in the video beneath. This is terrible negligence.

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_video src=”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWrQ5_qHd9g” _builder_version=”4.16″ width=”70%” module_alignment=”center” global_colors_info=”{}”][/et_pb_video][/et_pb_column][/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.16″ width=”100%” max_width=”2022px” module_alignment=”center” custom_padding=”|2%||2%|false|true” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.16″ global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.18.0″ text_font=”Montserrat||||||||” text_font_size=”1rem” text_line_height=”1.5em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#ffd100″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font=”|||on|||||” header_2_text_align=”left” header_2_text_color=”#3d3d3d” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_2_letter_spacing=”2px” header_2_line_height=”1.6em” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_font_size=”2em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_color_top=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]5. Particle Breakdown

Particles are exposed to strong centrifugal forces when swirling inside cyclones, and these forces can cause particles to break down into smaller particles if the particle material has a low tensile strength and is easy to break down (friable). Fly ash has a low tensile strength and is friable. Because boiler emissions consist mostly of fly ash, the use of multi-cyclones on boilers increases harmful PM_2.5 emissions.

Therefore although multi-cyclones may reduce the total concentration of particulate matter, they exacerbate the emissions of fine particulate matter (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5) which is detrimental to human health.

Multi-cyclones are well suited to applications where particles have a high tensile strength and are not friable, for example the separation of sand or minerals from drying gas streams.[/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.18.0″ text_font=”Montserrat||||||||” text_font_size=”1rem” text_line_height=”1.5em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#ffd100″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font=”|||on|||||” header_2_text_align=”left” header_2_text_color=”#3d3d3d” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_2_letter_spacing=”2px” header_2_line_height=”1.6em” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_font_size=”2em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_color_top=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]6. Inconsistent Performance

Multi-cyclone performance improves at higher gas flow rates as higher gas flow rates create stronger centrifugal forces in the cyclones and separate more particulate matter. Furthermore, higher gas flow rates cause a greater change in vertical velocity of the gas when it reverses direction at the bottom of each cyclone. However, higher gas flowrates only increase the efficiency of separation up to a point, after which turbulence destroys cyclonic flow and the efficiency of the multi-cyclone decreases, as shown beneath.[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/P19.jpg" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" width="80%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.25.2" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]

The variable nature of multi-cyclone efficiency is, in Yellow Tree’s opinion, one of the major disadvantages of using multi-cyclones as abatement equipment on boilers which have variable steam demands (and thus variable flue gas flow rates). Multi-cyclones are suited to applications with consistent flowrates so that they can be designed for maximum efficiency at that flow rate.

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7. Absolute Performance

a. Concentration

In South Africa, particulate matter emissions from processes and appliances are regulated under the listed activities and controlled emitters legislation. The strictest limit that is imposed upon particulate matter emissions is 10 mg/Nm³, and the most lenient is 250 mg/Nm³. Multi-cyclones may be able to meet the limit of 250 mg/Nm³, but they do not do so consistently. They can not meet many of the stricter limits in the listed activities, such as 50, 30 or 10 mg/Nm³.

b. Particle Size

Multi-cyclones can only arrest particles down to 5 µm in size. Unfortunately multi-cyclones can not arrest the most harmful particles which are smaller than 2.5 µm in size. Furthermore, as discussed above, multi-cyclones create more harmful PM_2.5 by breaking larger particles into smaller particles.

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What are the advantages of multi-cyclones?

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1. Cost. Multi-cyclones are available from a wide range of suppliers and are lower in cost than bag filters, electrostatic precipitators, and wet scrubbers.
2. Maintenance. Multi-cyclones require very little maintenance. Older multi-cyclones have no electrical components, and besides the sealing flaps, also have no mechanical moving components. Maintenance can be performed with a low level of artisanal skill.
3. Space. Although large in size, multi-cyclones occupy a smaller footprint (m²) per volume of gas that is treated (m³) than bag filters and electrostatic precipitators.
4. Pressure Drop. The pressure drop over a multi-cyclone is lower than that over a bag filter which means less electricity is consumed by the induced draft fan when a multi-cyclone is being used.
5. Easy to Reverse Engineer. By measuring the dimensions of a multi-cyclone exactly, one can build another multi-cyclone with identical performance, without having to perform design engineering calculations. This in turn increases access to technology, and decreases cost; although the ethics of this practice are questionable.

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which applications are most suitable for multi-cyclones?

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Multi-cyclones are best suited to applications where there is a consistent flow rate of gas that is to be treated and where the particles that are entrained in that gas have a high tensile strength and are not prone to degradation.

Alternative solutions should be sought for processes where emissions are required to be significantly lower than 250 mg/Nm³ on a consistent basis, where it is desired to reduce PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 emissions to improve health, where the gas flowrate is variable, and where particles are friable and prone to break down.

[/et_pb_text][/et_pb_column][/et_pb_row][et_pb_row _builder_version=”4.16″ width=”100%” max_width=”2022px” module_alignment=”center” custom_padding=”|2%||2%|false|true” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”4_4″ _builder_version=”4.16″ global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.16″ text_font=”Century Gothic|500|||||||” text_font_size=”1.3em” text_line_height=”1.6em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”center” header_text_color=”#000000″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_3_font=”|||on|||||” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_text_color=”#000000″ header_3_font_size=”2em” header_3_letter_spacing=”2px” header_3_line_height=”1.6em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_width_bottom=”3px” border_color_bottom=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]

What are the alternatives to multi-cyclones?

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.18.0″ text_font=”Montserrat||||||||” text_font_size=”1rem” text_line_height=”1.5em” header_font=”Century Gothic|700|||||||” header_text_align=”left” header_text_color=”#ffd100″ header_line_height=”2em” header_2_font=”|||on|||||” header_2_text_align=”left” header_2_text_color=”#3d3d3d” header_2_font_size=”2em” header_2_letter_spacing=”2px” header_2_line_height=”1.6em” header_3_text_align=”justify” header_3_font_size=”2em” text_orientation=”justify” header_2_font_size_tablet=”” header_2_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_2_font_size_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_text_align_tablet=”” header_3_text_align_phone=”center” header_3_text_align_last_edited=”on|phone” header_3_font_size_tablet=”1.6em” header_3_font_size_phone=”1.4em” header_3_font_size_last_edited=”on|tablet” border_color_top=”#ffd100″ text_text_align=”justify” global_colors_info=”{}”]1. Bag Filters

Bag filters will reduce particulate matter emissions down to ± 15 mg/Nm³. Suppliers normally guarantee bag filters to < 50mg/m³. Bag filters will arrest most PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 as they are capable of capturing particles down to 0.2 µm in size.

Bag filters will also easily handle process fluctuations such as deashing, soot blowing, and process flow reversals; eliminating all visible emissions during these unsteady state conditions. Bag filters are a particularly good solution for factories where the stacks receive public scrutiny and where the factory manufactures a well-loved consumer product. For example, the factory beneath is located in a highly visible location next to a prominent sports ground. A bag filter eliminates all visible emissions and preserves the reputation of the brand.[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/P20.jpg" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" width="70%" module_alignment="center" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.18.0" text_font="Montserrat||||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" header_2_font_size_tablet="" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" text_text_align="justify" global_colors_info="{}"]Bag filters are expensive, have a larger footprint on site than multi-cyclones, require routine maintenance, and consume more electricity due to their larger pressure drop. They are also limited to treating gas up to 260ºC. If the stack temperature will exceed 260ºC, ceramic filters must be used in place of bags.

2. Electrostatic Precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators have very little pressure drop as they are essentially large spacious vessels that are packed with plates. The plates are orientated parallel to the direction of flow, and charge and collect the particles. Electrostatic precipitators can be designed to arrest particulate matter down to a user-selected concentration, and can arrest particles down to 2 µm in size.

Electrostatic precipitators are particularly useful when treating emissions from biomass combustion. The particulate matter that arises from biomass combustion is light and fibrous and often burns for a long time. This presents a fire risk to bag filters but not to electrostatic precipitators.

3. Wet Scrubbers

Wet scrubbers are often accused of turning air pollution problems into water pollution problems, but as with all abatement technologies, they are suited to specific applications. Wet scrubbers are very useful when treating other pollutants besides particulate matter, pollutants that are either soluble in water or can be neutralised by a solution. For example, acidic emissions of HF and HCl can be passed through a caustic soda (NaOH) scrubber and converted into harmless salts and water.

Wet scrubbers can be used to treat particulate matter, and at the same time to treat SO₂ emissions that often accompany particulate matter emissions on combustion plants such as boilers, because SO₂ is highly soluble in water. However, wet scrubbers are prone to corrosion and blockages. Additionally, wet scrubbers create visible plumes of water vapour that the public often mistakes for air pollution.[/et_pb_text][et_pb_code _builder_version=”4.27.5″ _module_preset=”default” hover_enabled=”0″ sticky_enabled=”0″]

	Multi-Cyclones	Bag Filters	Wet Scrubbers	ESPs
Advantages	Low cost Low maintenance Designed to 250 mg/Nm³ No fire risk for biomass combustion	Designed to 50 mg/m³ (usually perform better than specification) Consistent performance Can be combined with flue gas desulphurization (FGD) to reduce SO₂ emissions	Designed to reduce PM emissions to specific limits Various designs Reduce SO₂ emissions along with PM emissions (SO₂ is water soluble) No fire risk for biomass combustion	Designed to reduce PM emissions to specific limits No fire risk for biomass combustion Can be combined with flue gas desulphurization (FGD) to reduce SO₂ emissions
Disadvantages	Performs at 120 – 800 mg/Nm³ Inconsistent performance Creates carcinogenic PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ Harmful to humans Legal compliance not guaranteed	High capital cost More maintenance Occasional auto-bypassing Large physical footprint Fire risk for biomass combustion	Maintenance intensive (corrosion is a big problem) Air pollution problem becomes water pollution problem Visible plume of condensation often mistaken for pollution	High capital cost Maintenance intensive Large physical footprint

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Modern advances in multi-cyclones.

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There have been many advances in multi-cyclone technology. The ability to shut off some cyclones and then bring them back online, so as to maintain constant flow through each individual cyclone in the context of a varying overall flowrate, helps to keep the individual cyclones operating at their maximum efficiency. This is an important advance.

Another way of achieving the same outcome, is to recirculate a stream of gas from downstream of the multi-cyclone to upstream of the multi-cyclone, to stabilize the flowrate through the multi-cyclone when the process flow is erratic.

Lastly, there are many different geometries of cyclones, all suited to different particle geometries, flowrates, and inlet concentrations. These geometries continue to be optimised.

In spite of these advances there is no substitute for choosing the right technology for the process application. One should also choose the right technology to meet the emissions limit, while leaving ample margin. If one is aiming to meet a limit of 150 mg/Nm³, then it is prudent to specify abatement equipment that can consistently meet a limit of 75 mg/Nm³ with ease.

A 17 minute tutorial video to supplement your learning from the above article is available at the link beneath, and will cement your knowledge further. Enjoy it!

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It is our passion to share engineering knowledge. Please share this article with engineers or SHEQ managers for whom it will be of benefit, so as to develop South African skills, improve the quality of our air and empower one another with knowledge.

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The Carbon footprint in… your fridge!

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Yellow Tree recently undertook a carbon footprint assessment for a large, multi-national player in the poultry industry. In writing the report, we uncovered some fascinating information about the carbon footprint of various foods.

As expected, there has been a consistent global rise in livestock production over the years, which is illustrated in Figure 1 below. Between 1970 and 2010, there was a 370 % increase in the farmed poultry population; a 140 % increase in the number of cattle, sheep, and goats; and a 160 % increase in the number of pigs. The growth in livestock production has resulted in an increase in the volume of greenhouse gases (GHGs) being released into the atmosphere. It is noteworthy that animal agriculture is responsible for 14.5 – 16.5 % of global GHG emissions¹.

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Global-Livestock-Production-from-1970-to-2010.jpg" title_text="Global Livestock Production from 1970 to 2010" _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" text_font="|700|||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_orientation="center" global_colors_info="{}"]

Figure 1: Global Livestock Production from 1970 to 2010
IPCC, Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) Ch.11

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Animals with ruminant digestive systems, such as cattle, sheep, and goats, produce large volumes of methane, which is released as flatulence. These large volumes of methane are produced as a result of enteric fermentation which occurs in the guts of the animals. Additionally, ruminant animals have higher feed requirements and require large tracts of land for grazing². The farming of poultry avoids these problems and thus poultry has a comparatively low carbon footprint when compared to other livestock.

The following two graphs (Figure 2 and Figure 3) show the emissions that are released during the production of various foods. As shown, the processing of beef, lamb, dairy, and cheese has a large carbon footprint when compared to that of poultry farming. Additionally, it is evident that vegetarian diets provide protein at a mere 5 – 10 % of the carbon footprint of chicken and provide protein at a mere 0.3 – 1 % of the carbon footprint of beef!

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Kilograms-CO2e-per-100g-of-Protein.jpg" title_text="Kilograms CO2e per 100g of Protein" _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" text_font="|700|||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_orientation="center" global_colors_info="{}"]Figure 2: Kilograms CO₂e Per 100 g of Protein
Poore and Nemecek, 2018[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Kilograms-CO2e-per-Kilogram-of-Food-Product.jpg" title_text="Kilograms CO2e per Kilogram of Food Product" _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" text_font="|700|||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_orientation="center" global_colors_info="{}"]Figure 3: Kilograms CO₂e Per Kilogram of Food Product
Poore and Nemecek, 2018[/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.18.0" _module_preset="default" text_font="Montserrat|500|||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_line_height="1.5em" header_font="Century Gothic|700|||||||" header_text_align="left" header_text_color="#ffd100" header_line_height="2em" header_2_font="|||on|||||" header_2_text_align="left" header_2_text_color="#3d3d3d" header_2_font_size="2em" header_2_letter_spacing="2px" header_2_line_height="1.6em" header_3_text_align="justify" header_3_font_size="2em" text_orientation="justify" custom_margin="||0%||false|false" custom_padding="||0%||false|false" header_2_font_size_tablet="2em" header_2_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_2_font_size_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_text_align_tablet="justify" header_3_text_align_phone="center" header_3_text_align_last_edited="on|phone" header_3_font_size_tablet="1.6em" header_3_font_size_phone="1.4em" header_3_font_size_last_edited="on|tablet" border_color_top="#ffd100" global_colors_info="{}"]It is important to remember that carbon footprints are only one way to assess the overall sustainability of food products. Other metrics include deforestation, biodiversity loss, water use, labour exploitation, and animal cruelty. The graph beneath reveals additional metrics in action, and evaluates the environmental impact of dairy milk and the common substitutes. Which milk do you drink?[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/The-Environmental-Impact-of-Different-Milks.jpg" alt="The Environmental Impact of Different Milks" title_text="The Environmental Impact of Different Milks" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" text_font="|700|||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_orientation="center" global_colors_info="{}"]

Figure 4: Environmental Impact of One Glass (200 mL) of Different Milks
Guibourg and Briggs, 2019

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It is interesting to note that South Africa is one of the world’s leading consumers of chicken, ranking 10th in the world for the consumption of chicken in absolute terms (i.e. not per capita) in 2019³. Each South African consumes, on average, 33 kg of chicken per year and 17 kg of beef per year.We hope that you have enjoyed learning about which foods have the lowest carbon footprints. At Yellow Tree, some of our staff have chosen to follow vegetarian and vegan diets, while others have simply focused on meat minimisation or plant-based diets to serve the environment while still incorporating meat into their weekly meal plans.

Just as carbon footprinting can help us adjust our diets, it can help identify methods of operating more sustainably in business too. A carbon footprint is an estimate of the amount of GHGs that are emitted, both directly and indirectly, in daily business operations. GHGs trap heat in the atmosphere, thus causing global warming. The aim of carbon footprinting is therefore to assess the extent to which a company contributes to global warming, and what can be done to reduce a company’s impact.

A subsequent intervention plan guides a company towards decarbonisation. The value of these studies is that they represent good corporate governance. By displaying future-readiness and by tracking sustainability metrics, companies can attract local and foreign investors who understand the importance of decarbonisation.

As was said by business management thinker, Peter Drucker, “If you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it”. Quantifying one’s carbon footprint constitutes the measurement. Identifying areas of improvement and drawing up an intervention plan constitute the management. Many companies report their current carbon footprint and reduction goals as part of their annual Corporate Social Investment (CSI) reporting. In the US and UK, public carbon footprint reporting is mandatory for large companies.

When conducting a carbon footprint, it is important to define where the operational boundary should be drawn. The operational boundary determines which emissions should be included in the assessment and which will be excluded. The operational boundary can include Scope 1, Scope 2, and Scope 3 emissions, as defined in Figure 5.

[/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src="https://nbwg0.wpdevsite.co/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Direct-and-Indirect-Emissions.jpg" title_text="Direct and Indirect Emissions" align="center" _builder_version="4.16" _module_preset="default" global_colors_info="{}"][/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version="4.17.4" _module_preset="default" text_font="|700|||||||" text_font_size="1rem" text_orientation="center" global_colors_info="{}"]

Figure 5: Direct (Scope 1) and Indirect (Scopes 2 and 3) Emissions
www.bsr.org

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We would love to help you quantify your carbon footprint and to identify solutions that will enable you to decarbonise your organisation. By embarking on a decarbonisation journey, companies often increase their resilience against externalities that are outside of their control and reduce their operating costs.We are here to help!

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References:

1. https://www.hsi.org/issues/climate-change
2. https://ourworldindata.org/carbon-footprint-food-methane
3. https://poultryworld.net

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Oxygen Normalisation – Video Transcript for the Hearing Impaired

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Today we are going to talk about oxygen references. The concept of oxygen references is really important when it comes to stack testing and their purpose is to reverse the effect of pollutant dilution. Let’s think of an example. Say, we have a coal-fired boiler and in this coal-fired boiler stack there is a concentration of particulate matter of 200 milligrams per normal cubic meter (mg/Nm³). If ambient air is introduced into that stack, whether on purpose, or just as a virtue of how the process works, that means that this concentration is going to be diluted by the ambient air. We need a way that we can reverse the effect of this dilution so that we can compare this stack that has pollutant dilution, with another that doesn’t have dilution, and the way we do that is by using oxygen references.

Now to apply an oxygen reference, we multiply the concentration of the pollutant by an oxygen reference factor. That factor is 21% minus your oxygen reference, divided by, 21% minus the oxygen that you measure in the stack. Oxygen references are always specified in the legislation, and for a coal-fired boiler, the specified oxygen reference is 10%. We can insert that 10% into our equation. The bottom of this equation needs the oxygen concentration that is measured in the stack.Now keep in mind that ambient air contains 21% oxygen. 10% is sort of the typical oxygen concentration that you would expect directly downstream of a coal-fired boiler before any ambient air has been added. If ambient air has been added, your concentration of oxygen will be higher than 10%.

Let’s for example say that the concentration that we measure is 18%. So the oxygen reference factor equals 3.6. Now what that means is that every time that a stack has an oxygen concentration of 18%, we are going to multiply the pollutant concentration by this factor of 3.6. So the effect of dilution is going to be reversed because we are going to be multiplying the diluted concentration by this factor that is greater than 1, and basically making the concentration bigger and correcting it back to what it should have been. Oxygen references also work the other way around. So say for some reason the boiler is operating incorrectly and we are only measuring an oxygen concentration of 5%.

What happens to the oxygen reference factor is that it becomes less than one, and so we will then be multiplying the pollutant emissions by a factor of less than one, which will make the emissions smaller – once again correcting them so that they are representative of what is actually happening in the process, so that they can be compared on a like-for-like basis with other stacks.Something that is really important to know is that oxygen references can only be used in situations where combustion is taking place. During combustion, oxygen is consumed and the concentration of oxygen goes from 21% to a number lower than 21%.

If you have a process that is happening at ambient conditions, i.e. no combustion is happening, you will measure an oxygen concentration of 21% downstream of the process. What’s going to happen when you put that 21% in your equation, is that the bottom of your equation becomes zero. We know that we can’t divide by zero.So in summary, oxygen references are used to reverse the effect of pollutant dilution to make results comparable between stacks. But they can only be used when combustion is taking place and they cannot be used in ambient situations.

You can watch the video here.

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